The Significance of Yoshida Shoin Within the National History
After about 250 years of peaceful isolation, Japan fell into chaos after the fleet of Matthew Perry arrived Japan in 1853. A lot of scholars and shishis emerged during this turbulent period. Among them, Yoshida Shoin was the most important scholar during the late Edo period. He developed his concepts of “Ka-I no Ben,” “Kun-Shin no Gi” and Kokutai based on the studies of Yamaga Soto and Sakuma Zozan. His influential works inspired Shishi and his students, such as Ito Hirobumi and Takasugi Shinsaku, carried his spirit during the Meiji Restoration.
Yoshida Shoin was from Choshu Domain. The Lord of Domain was Moori family, one of the most powerful families during the Sengoku period. Choshu was the most westernized domain in Japan during the late Edo period. The Lord, Moori Takachika, initiated the westernization of the military as early as 1831. Moori Takachika also started the research project on western weapons in 1843. Growing in such environment, Shoin was influenced by the western science and technologies since his youth. This environment contributed to Shoin’s interest in western technologies.
The Yamaga School influenced Yoshida Shoin significantly. Shoin studied Yamaga school when he was young. Yamaga Soto, an important Japanese scholar during the early Edo period, found the Yamaga School. Yamaga studied under Hayashi Razan, a famous Japanese Confucianism scholar, on Chinese literature and Confucianism. Besides, Yamaga also studied Shinto and Buddhism. He even studied western military tactics and weaponry for his military studies. Yamaga Soto emphasized in the role of the Samurai class and the Bushido, the superiority of Japan, and the Emperor-Bakufu Relationship.
Yamaga Soto lived during the 17th century. During this peaceful rule of Tokugawa Shogun, the Samurai class neither fought any war nor conducted any productive activity; they enjoyed a parasitic existence at the expense of other classes. They ate the food produced by the farmers and used the goods from artisans and merchants. A lot of scholars during the early Edo period raised the question: what was the role of the samurai class in the peaceful Tokugawa period? According to Yamaga, the samurais served as the models for ordinary people from other three social classes, the farmers, the artisans and the merchants. They were the leaders of Japanese society by practicing and devoting themselves to the Great Gi. This concept of Gi, or Duty, included unreserved loyalty and services to the lord and living with high achievement. The high achievement included a life of temperance and self-discipline and readiness to meet death at any time. Just like the role of the farmers were to produce food, and the role of artisans were to make goods, the role of the Samurai class was to serve the lords with unreserved and utmost loyalty. According to the Way of Samurai wrote by Yamaga:“The business of a Samurai is to reflect on his own station of life, to give loyal service to his own master if he has one, to strengthen his fidelity in association with friends and, with due consideration of his own position, to devote himself to duty above all. [1]” Besides living with the Great Duty, the Warriors also needed to fulfill the Way of five relations as an exemplification for the three classes of normal people. The samurai class was the guardian of the society’s moral code and owned the high duty of keeping the people of the lower three social classes in their proper position. In the Way of Samurai, Yamaga wrote that “If someone in the three classes of common people who violates these moral principles, the samurai should punish him summarily and thus uphold the proper moral principle of the land. [2]”
During this peaceful era ruled Tokugawa Bakufu, the martial art of warriors became useless. Under this situation, Yamaga stressed the importance of mastering the so-called “peaceful art” as the essential to the intellectual discipline of the samurai class. The discipline of the samurai class, according to Yamaga, was the unity of the military power, the study of martial art, and the civil art, the study of humanity. Based on historical observations, Yamaga claimed that during the period of peace, the domination of samurai class transformed from the military aristocracy to political and intellectual leadership. With the tradition of the emphasizing on humanity studies, the samurais became brains of the Restoration and played a major role in Japan’s modernization. Yamaga demonstrated the great functions and duties of the samurai classes through his book the Way of Samurai. His teaching later developed into the concept of Bushido.
Although Yamaga studied neo-Confucianism since his youth, he disagreed strongly on the scholar works of Neo-Confucian sages Zhu Xi. The neo-Confucianism scholar believed that continuous study of knowledge and principle eventually led to the self-realization. However, Yamaga Soto thought that true human nature could be fulfilled and realized only through action. Yamaga believed that throughout the Chinese history, Confucianism changes and transforms, it was already much different from the orthodox Confucianism preached by Confucius during the Warrior States Period. Just like Mencius once said, no great sage surpassed Confucius. The great scholars from Han and Tang, and the Neo-Confucianism scholar, such as the Cheng brothers and Zhu Xi, never achieved the same level of Confucius. Yamaga once wrote “I look up to the Duke of Zhou and Confucius for guidance, but not the Confucians of the Han, Tang Song or Ming. What I aimed to is the teaching of the sages, not the aberrant views of deviations. [3]” Yamaga’s preaches violated the moral principle of the Tokugawa Bakufu. As an active defender of Neo-Confucianism and Zhu Xi, the Shogun forced Yamaga to exile under the custody of the Lord of Ako, after Yamaga openly taught his disagreement with Neo-Confucianism. During his exile, he gradually developed the concept of Japanese superiority over foreign states. Yamaga focused his study on Japanese traditions and wrote Chucho Jijitsu to show that Japan, not China is the center and the zenith of all culture [4]. Yamaga believed that the Japanese superiority represented by the unbreakable lineage of Imperial House. The history of Japan was the Emperors followed the instruction of Amaterasu, carefully protected the Three Sacred Treasures, and governed Japan, the divine land, with Benevolence, Righteousness, and Wisdom [5]. The history of Japan demonstrated the concept of loyalty in Confucianism because the Imperial rule of Japan continued since the Emperor Jimmu period. While in China, the dynasties came and gone, and the Confucianism had been corrupted significantly because all dynasties tried to use Confucianism as a tool of governance. The Great Sages in Chinese history, such as Tang and Wu, were beasts because they rebelled against their lords.
Japan was also the divine land because outside forces had never conquered Japan. The Mongols and Manchus conquered China, but Japan was never conquered and remained under the rule of the Imperial House. The Chinese culture was discontinued in China but stayed in Japan. While the Mongols defeated the Song Dynasty, Japan defeated the Mongols with the aid of the Kamikaze, the divine wind. This fact further enhanced that Japan was the true “Chuka” and was more superior to China.
Yamaga supported the rule of the shoguns; he believed that the shogun’s governance was a continuity of Imperial power and the legitimate exercise of authority as the deputy of Emperor. According to Yamaga’s work Buke Jikii, a book that dealt with Japanese history under shogunates, shogun governments administrated Japan by Imperial mandates [6]. Because the power of Shoguns came from the Emperor, the shogun regimes were legitimate. With regard of Tokugawa shogunate, Yamaga wrote “Accordingly, even though a military general has grasped the power and direct government and letters within the four seas, it is nevertheless for the reason that he has been commanded to oversee all the state affairs on behalf of the Imperial Court, and his serving of the Imperial Court diligently, without the slightest negligence, is in accordance with the Great Propriety obtaining between lord and subject. [7]”
The ideal of Bushido, the concept of Japanese superiority and the relationship between the Imperial House and Bakufu were the most significant contributions of Yamaga Soto. These thoughts certainly influenced Yoshida Shoin as Yoshida discussed and reflected on these topics in his works.
Another study that significantly impacted Yoshida Shoin was Rangaku. Rangaku gradually developed since the early Edo period. By the late Edo period, Rangaku became an influential study in Japan. Yoshida Shoin was attracted to Rangaku since his youth, partially because he was from Choshu domain, the most westernized domain in Japan during the late Edo period. The Lord, Moori Takachika, initiated the westernization of the military as early as 1831. Growing in such environment, Shoin was influenced by the western science and technologies since his youth. This environment contributed to Shoin’s interest in western technologies. Yoshida studied western weaponry and tactics when he was a student of the Yamaga school. When Matthew Perry visited Japan, Yoshida secretly climbed on Perry’s ship and requested to leave Japan with Perry so he could study in the west. Yoshida studied under Sakuma Zozan, an influential Rangaku scholar in the late Edo period. Zozan’s belief of Waka Yosai, or Japanese spirit with Western technologies, influenced Yoshida Shoin significantly.
Zozan was from Matsushiro domain. He went to Edo to study Confucianism. After years of studying Confucianism, he switched his research field to Rangaku. When Yoshida Shoin traveled to Edo for his study, Zozan was already an established Rangaku scholar. Zozan strongly opposed the signing of unequal treaties and opening treaty ports. He stated that the foreign invasion would endanger not only the Tokugawa Bakufu but also the Imperial House.
During his lecture on Mencius, in 1855, Shoin said: “In studying the learning of Europe and America to adore and idolize the barbarian… must be rejected absolutely. But the barbarians’ artillery and shipbuilding their knowledge of medicine, and of physical sciences, can all be of use to us — — these should properly be adopted. [8]” This quote by Yoshida Shoin summarized the concept of Wako Yosai, the core concept of Sakuma Zozan. Zozan emphasized the importance and necessity to study Western sciences. He submitted a letter to the Lord of Matsushiro domain and claimed that Japan should send young men with talent to the Western Countries to investigate the conditions of foreign countries and study western technologies [9]. Zozan wanted to employ the Western techniques and weapons to build up the strength of Japan and make Japan a world power. On the other hand, he believed that Japan was unique because of the unbroken Imperial lineage. Japan should introduce western technologies while preserving Japanese value. In military aspect, Japan should adopt Western weapons and tactics but kept the Samurai class. This concept of Wako Yosai profoundly influenced his student Yoshida Shoin.
After years of studying, during the summer of 1856, Yoshida Shoin started teaching at his academy, Shoka Sonjuku. According to his lecture notes, Shoka Sonjuku Ki, Yoshida Shoin’s most important teachings were Kun-Shin no gi, or the Duty of the lord and subjects, and Ka-I no Ben, or the discrimination of civilized and barbarian [10]. Besides these two topics, he also taught Kokutai and Emperor’s relationship with Bakufu.
The three pillars of Yoshida Shoin’s philosophy, Kokutai, Kun-shin no gi and Ka-I no Ben, centered around the core concept of unreserved loyalty towards the Emperor. Yoshida Shoin claimed that Japan was a unique state because of the unbreakable Imperial House that lasted for thousand years. For Yoshida, the Kokutai of Japan was the power, influence and the authority of the Emperor. The Emperor, rather than the Bakufu, was the legitimate ruler of Japan. In Yushuroku, Shoin explained the creation of Kokutai. Kokutai derived from national customs. The sages selected goods from the national customs and rejected the evils, and created the Kokutai [11]. The sages of in the National History were the Emperors; thus, the Emperors of Japan created the Kokutai, and the Kokutai became the source of Japanese superiority over foreign nations. Based on Kokutai, the legitimate ruler of Japan was the Emperor, not the Bakufu. The Tokugawa family was not different from the lords of each domain. Every domain should serve the Emperor, not the Bakafu, with utmost loyalty. Yoshida’s experience in Choshu Domain influenced the formulation of this concept. The lord of Choshu, the Moori family, was one of the most powerful families in Japan during the Sengoku era. The Moori family forced to submit to the Tokugawa family only because they chose the wrong side in the battle of Sekigahara. Yoshida didn’t believe the Togukawa family was superior over the Moori family, and other domains, by any mean. The Tokugawa Bakufu only governed Japan based on the appointment of the Emperor. When the Shogunate acted against the will of the Emperor, the Tokugawa regime lost its legitimacy. In 1858, the Tokugawa Bakufu negotiated unequal treaties with the foreign powers without the consent from the Emperor. Shoin strongly opposed the signing of the treaties, calling for the protection of Kokutai and the refusal to accept external insults. Shoin submitted a statement to the lord of Choshu, claimed that the Tokugawa Bakufu had violated the imperial command, thus lost the legitimacy[12].
According to Yoshida Shoin, the core concept of the Duty between lord and subject was the unreserved loyalty subjects demonstrated to the lord. He believed that loyalty to the Emperor was the greatest Duty. The loyalty toward the Emperor made Japanese people more superior over foreigners. In his Seven Principles for the Samurai, Yoshida Shoin wrote that men were different from animals and beast because of the existence of the Five Relationships. Among the Five relations, “the most important are those of lord-subject and father-son. Therefore, that which makes a man a man has Loyalty and Filial Piety as its foundation. [13]” Japanese people were superior over the foreigners because the eternal Imperial Court that lasted “one line for ten thousand ages.” The Emperor who nurtured the people and the people who showed loyalty to their lords were one body. The loyalty and the Filial Piety were united. This uniqueness made Japan superior over foreigners. The samurais were different from other Japanese because they held the Duty, which is unreserved service and utmost loyalty toward the lord and Emperor. This passage demonstrated that the Imperial House was the source of Japanese superiority. Loyalty toward the Emperor, just like piety toward parents, was the natural behavior of Japanese people. For samurai class, in particular, the great duty was to serve and die for the Emperor. Shoin further justified the unreserved loyalty toward Emperor by claiming that everyone owed to parents, Han Shu, Emperor and Amaterasu, thus they must repay them with loyalty.
Yoshida Shoin particular emphasized on the concept of Ka-I no Ben or the discrimination of civilized and barbarians. He claimed that the Japan was supreme over foreign countries because of the eternal Imperial house. He believed that the spiritual and ethical values would bring enlightenment to the entire world [14]. The Western world, in the mind of Yoshida Shoin, lacked proper ethics. Shoin wrote that “Recently, seven American barbarians’ warship have been anchored in close proximity to Edo. Their attitude is obviously crafty; their appearance, extremely violent.[15]” However, Shoin showed great interests in Western technologies. He wrote in Yushuroku that “In mechanical instruments and practical arts, charges occur year after year but in the ability to start with reflection and end in demonstration, obviously, there is no ka nor I [16].” Shoin’s rejection of western ethics and adoption of western science was influenced by Sakuma Zozan’s Wako Yosai. He understood the importance of empowering Japan with Western weapons. Yoshida Shoin didn’t reject west, he rejected Western dominance over Japan and desired to establish relationships with Western powers based on equality.
The Yamaga school undoubtedly influenced Shoin’s ideas on Kokutai and loyalty to Emperor. Yoshida Shoin’s concept of the Duty between the subject and the lord was a decedent from Yamaga Soto’s view of Bushido. Yamaga believed that the idea of Duty included demonstrating the unreserved loyalty toward the lord in the daily life of the warriors. Shoin claimed that loyalty of the Emperor was the greatest duty and samurai class was different from the other three classes because the Samurais carried the duty. Both Yamaga and Shoin believed that the uniqueness of Japan derived from the eternal rule of the Imperial House. The power and influence of the Emperor symbolized the Kokutai of Japan. The Bakufu administrated Japan based on the approval of the Emperor. However, Yamaga and Yoshida viewed the Tokugawa Shogunate differently. Yamaga believed that the Tokugawa regime was legitimate because the Shogun was ruled based on the appointment of the Emperor. However, as the Bakufu signed the unequal treaties with foreigners without the approval of the Emperor, Yoshida Shoin believed the Tokugawa Bakufu lost the legitimacy.
Yoshida Shoin was the most prominent figure during the late Edo era and a significant figure in the National History. He was the leading scholar during the late Edo period who developed his thought based on Yamaga School and Rangaku. His students became the great shishis for Restoration and founders of the Meiji State. Shoin’s student hailed him as the spiritual leader of the Choshu faction, the most influential faction in Japanese politics. In the Shoin Shrine, significant figures from Choshu commemorated him and donated Stone lanterns. The donator included Ito Hirobumi, the first prime minister of Japan, the most influential Japanese politician during the Meiji era, the father of Meiji Constitution, and “the Bismarck of Japan.” Yamagata Arimoto, one of the most influential politicians during the Meiji period, the father of the Imperial Japanese Army also donated a stone lantern. Katsura Taro, the prime minister during Russo-Japanese War, and Nogi Maresuke, the great army general and the hero of Sino-Japanese War and Russo-Japanese War also made donations. These students of Yoshida Shoin became the pillars of the Meiji States. Even more than a century after Shoin’s death, in 1964, the Prime Minister Kishi Nobusuke also donated a stone plate for the 100th anniversary of the Meiji Restoration. Yoshida Shoin nurtured the most powerful Japanese political faction and extended his influence to post-war Japanese politics.
Shoin carried the ideas of bushido and loyalty to Emperor from the giants in the national history, such as the spirit of Kusunoki Masashige, and passed down to his students such as Takasugi Shinsaku and Ito Hirobumi. Shoin died during the Ansei Purge; he was executed by the Bakufu because he carried his ideal of loyalty. He became part of the National History just like Kusunoki Masashige because he died for his ideal. His students, influenced by his scholar works, carried his spirits until the success of the Meiji Restoration. He represented the development of the National History; he developed his studies based on the thoughts and concepts from previous scholars, he carried the spirit of the great scholars before him. He became a significant figure in the National History after his death, and his students continued his ideals. Yoshida Shoin was also notable for Shinto. He was enshrined in Shoin Shrine and Yasukuni Shrine because of his unreserved loyalty for the Emperor and his death for his ideal. The Shoin Shrine became a site that promoted Nationalism. Young military officers gathered at the Shoin Shrine and demonstrated their loyalty toward the Emperor before the February 26th Incident.
If Yoshida Shoin lived long enough to witness Meiji Restoration, he would be disappointed by new policies enforced by Meiji State. The Meiji State abolished the Samurai class and imposed the Meiji Constitution to limit the power of the Emperor. The Genro and the Diet also became “the new Bakufu” because these institutions took away the power of Emperor and sometimes acted without the consent of the Meiji Emperor himself. The changes imposed by the Meiji Government were because his student Ito Hirobumi and himself were distinctively different people. Ito and his colleagues were more secular and more westernized. For example, while Shoin never been to the west, Ito studied in Britain when he was young. Ito clearly surpassed his mentor in western studies. Ito recognized the mere adoption of Western technology and military science was not enough; he introduced Western political and economic institutions into Japan. He and his colleagues were secular and pragmatic enough to push for radical Westernization and made Japan emerged as a significant word power.
Yoshida Shoin was the most influential scholar during the late Edo period. He developed his thought based on his study of Yamaga School and Sakuma Zozan. He carried the spirit of loyalty from Kusunoki Masashige and passed to his students. Shoin’s students, such as Ito Hirobumi, developed their thoughts based on their study of Shoin’s scholar works and applied their ideas as influential politicians of the Meiji State. This process echoed with Shoin’s thought development based on the works of Yamaga School and Sakuma Zozan and represented the changes and continuity of the National History.
Notes
[1]: Theodore de Bary, Carol Gluck, and Arthur E.Tiedemann. Sources of Japanese Tradition: Volume 2 Abridged, Part One 1600–1868. New York: Columbia University Press, 2006. P166
[2]: Theodore de Bary, Carol Gluck, and Arthur E.Tiedemann. Sources of Japanese Tradition: Volume 2 Abridged, Part One 1600–1868. New York: Columbia University Press, 2006. P166
[3]: Theodore de Bary, Carol Gluck, and Arthur E.Tiedemann. Sources of Japanese Tradition: Volume 2 Abridged, Part One 1600–1868. New York: Columbia University Press, 2006. P168
[4]: Theodore de Bary, Carol Gluck, and Arthur E.Tiedemann. Sources of Japanese Tradition: Volume 2 Abridged, Part One 1600–1868. New York: Columbia University Press, 2006. P161
[5] David Magarey Earl, Emperor and Nation in Japan: Political Thinkers of the Tokugawa Period. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964. The Development of Loyalist and Patriotic Theories under Tokugawa Rule. Yamaga Soko, p47
[6] David Magarey Earl, Emperor and Nation in Japan: Political Thinkers of the Tokugawa Period. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964. The Development of Loyalist and Patriotic Theories under Tokugawa Rule. Yamaga Soko, p43
[7]: David Magarey Earl, Emperor and Nation in Japan: Political Thinkers of the Tokugawa Period. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964. The Development of Loyalist and Patriotic Theories under Tokugawa Rule. Yamaga Soko, p43
[8]David Magarey Earl, Emperor and Nation in Japan. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964. Part II: The Application of Loyalist and Patriotic Theories in the Mid-Nineteenth Century: The Example of Yoshida Shoin. P147.
[9]David Magarey Earl, Emperor and Nation in Japan. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964. Part II: The Application of Loyalist and Patriotic Theories in the Mid-Nineteenth Century: The Example of Yoshida Shoin. P149.
[10] David Magarey Earl, Emperor and Nation in Japan. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964. Part II: The Application of Loyalist and Patriotic Theories in the Mid-Nineteenth Century: The Example of Yoshida Shoin. P131.
[11] David Magarey Earl, Emperor and Nation in Japan. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964. Part II: The Application of Loyalist and Patriotic Theories in the Mid-Nineteenth Century: The Example of Yoshida Shoin. P164.
[12]David Magarey Earl, Emperor and Nation in Japan. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964. Part II: The Application of Loyalist and Patriotic Theories in the Mid-Nineteenth Century: The Example of Yoshida Shoin. P134.
[13]David Magarey Earl, Emperor and Nation in Japan. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964. Part II: The Application of Loyalist and Patriotic Theories in the Mid-Nineteenth Century: The Example of Yoshida Shoin. P180.
[14] David Magarey Earl, Emperor and Nation in Japan. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964. Part II: The Application of Loyalist and Patriotic Theories in the Mid-Nineteenth Century: The Example of Yoshida Shoin. P165.
[15] David Magarey Earl, Emperor and Nation in Japan. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964. Part II: The Application of Loyalist and Patriotic Theories in the Mid-Nineteenth Century: The Example of Yoshida Shoin. P166.
[16] David Magarey Earl, Emperor and Nation in Japan. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964. Part II: The Application of Loyalist and Patriotic Theories in the Mid-Nineteenth Century: The Example of Yoshida Shoin. P166.
Citation
David Magarey Earl, Emperor and Nation in Japan: Political Thinkers of the Tokugawa Period. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964. The Development of Loyalist and Patriotic Theories under Tokugawa Rule. Yamaga Soko, pp.37–51.
Theodore de Bary, Carol Gluck, and Arthur E.Tiedemann. Sources of Japanese Tradition: Volume 2 Abridged, Part One 1600–1868. New York: Columbia University Press, 2006.
David Magarey Earl, Emperor and Nation in Japan. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964. Part II: The Application of Loyalist and Patriotic Theories in the Mid-Nineteenth Century: The Example of Yoshida Shoin. pp.109–210.
Herschel Webb, The Japanese Imperial Institution in the Tokugawa Period. NY: Columbia University Press, 1968.
“Sakuma Zozan.” Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Web.
“Rangaku.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d.
“Sakuma Shozan.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d.
